Theories: A summary.
Sociotechnical Systems Theory (STS)
According to the University of Leeds (n.d.), the socio-technical systems theory holds that improving any organisational system's design and performance depends on a proper consideration of 'social' and 'technical' aspects. Yet, the two elements must be viewed interdependently since; eventually, trade-offs may be necessary, and arrangements required for one of the aspects may not be applicable for the other one (Fox, 1995). The theory operates on two primary principles. One, the interaction notwithstanding, the 'socio' will not behave the same way as the 'technical' because human beings are not machines. Two, optimising either of the elements automatically augments unpredictable and inconsistent relationships, alongside relationships that can undermine the performance of relevant systems (Walker et al., 2008). In summary, STS flourishes and is founded on joint optimisation of the two interdependent systems.
References
Fox, W. M. (1995). Socio-technical system principles and guidelines: Past and present. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 31(1), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886395311009
The University of Leeds. (n.d.). Socio-technical systems theory. Business.leeds.ac.uk. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://business.leeds.ac.uk/research-stc/doc/socio-technical-systems-theory#:~:text=Socio%2Dtechnical%20theory%20has%20at
Walker, G. H., Stanton, N. A., Salmon, P. M., & Jenkins, D. P. (2008). A review of socio-technical systems theory: A classic concept for new command and control paradigms. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 9(6), 479–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639220701635470
Social Contract Theory (SCT)
According to the social contract theory (SCT), people co-exist in a society on the basis of a common agreement that defines moral, political, and ethical rules of association and behaviour (McCombs School of Business, 2013). The theory states its postulation from the beginning when people lived without governments or laws. For a smooth co-existence, people entered into "Pactum Unionis” and “Pactum Subjectionis” agreements which aided them in overcoming any prevailing hardships (Elahi, 2013). The former advanced protection of people's lives alongside their properties, whereas the latter involved people, in solidarity, pledging their loyalty and resolving to obey an authority. The authority would be responsible for ensuring the success of “Pactum Unionis.” Theorists like Thomas Hobbes contended that such a society would be dreadful to live in because it would lack a culture, knowledge, place for commerce or even security (McCartney & Parent, 2015). Social contract theory simply describes a cynical but somewhat realistic society where human beings operate on their accords, without any laws or enforcers of the same.
One example of such a society is evident when a region plunges into catastrophe or chaos like New Orleans in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. SCT describes a “dog eat dog” society where everyone becomes selfish and does whatever they can to survive by aiming at amassing more power and wealth (McCartney & Parent, 2015). In such a society, human beings act with brute force and become utterly wicked due to a lack of rules that would define how people relate with one another. For instance, a social contract, the U.S. constitution, sets out moral and political obligations of people it governs, thereby enforcing peaceful co-existence and harmony.
References
Elahi, M. (2013). Summary of social contract theory by Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2410525
McCartney, S., & Parent, R. (2015, April 17). Social contract theory. Opentextbc.ca; BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/ethicsinlawenforcement/chapter/social-contract-theory/
McCombs School of Business. (2013). Social Contract Theory. Ethics Unwrapped. https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/social-contract-theory
Social Constructivism Theory
Lev Vygotsky, the theorist, believed that when learners interacted mostly with their teachers and fellow learners, they increased their chances of acquiring quality knowledge (Lumen Learning, n.d.). Therefore, the social constructivism theory simply views learning as a collaborative endeavour (Berkeley Graduate Division, 2019). There exist five main principles of social constructivism theory: Knowledge is not inherent but constructed, learning is active and collaborative, all knowledge is acquired socially, the knowledge is personal, and learning is all in the mind (Mcleod, 2019). The theory holds that no one is born with knowledge. Instead, learners acquire and build on their existing knowledge. Learners can only construct meaning when they actively engage with their world through activities like problem-solving experiments. Learning is only successful through interaction, and a community is utterly critical in the construction of knowledge. Knowledge being personal, various people can boast of a distinct point of view founded on their values. Finally, knowledge only lives within the confines of the human mind, meaning that it must not fit within any reality in the world. Learners have new experiences, which they use to update their knowledge and interpret their personal realities incessantly.
References
Berkeley Graduate Division. (2019). Social Constructivism. Berkeley.edu. https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/social-constructivism/
Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Social Constructivism: Vygotsky’s Theory. Courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/edpsy/chapter/social-constructivism-vygotskys-theory/
Mcleod, S. (2019). Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html
Punctuated Equilibrium Theory (PET)
Punctuated Equilibrium Theory (PET) suggests that as time goes by, public and organisational policies move slowly, but in that process, they change extensively and rapidly (Flink, 2015). The core function of the framework is to explain the reasons behind long instability periods and short radical changes in public policies (Jolicoeur, 2018). For instance, until 1965, tobacco policies in America had seen very minimal changes; however, in the late 1960s, shareholders took actions that necessitated radical changes in the sector (Jolicoeur, 2018). PET operates on various core concepts of policy change. The first concept is policy image, which entails understanding and discussion of a policy (Kuhlmann & van der Heijden, 2018). The next concept revolves around institutional venues, which involves all societal groups responsible for making relevant decisions. Attention allocation, the third concept, holds that a shortage of resources limits the actions of policymakers. Lastly, the concept of resistance forces defines political systems’ structural restrictions that function to obscure any change.
References
Flink, C. M. (2015). Rethinking punctuated equilibrium theory: A public administration approach to budgetary changes. Policy Studies Journal, 45(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1111/psj.12114
Jolicoeur, M. M. (2018). An introduction to punctuated equilibrium: A model for understanding stability and dramatic change in public policies description of the model the initial observation of frank R. National Collaborating Centre for Healthy Public Policy. https://www.ncchpp.ca/docs/2018_ProcessPP_Intro_PunctuatedEquilibrium_EN.pdf
Kuhlmann, J., & van der Heijden, J. (2018). What is known about punctuated equilibrium theory? And what does that tell us about the construction, validation, and replication of knowledge in the policy sciences? Review of Policy Research, 35(2), 326–347. https://doi.org/10.1111/ropr.12283